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THERMODYNAMIC BASICS
BRANCHES OF DESRIPTION
_The study of thermodynamical systems has developed into several
related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a
theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying
types of systems.
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states (especially equilibrium states) and processes of thermodynamical systems, using macroscopic, empirical properties directly measurable in the laboratory. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work, heat, and matter, based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the descriptive level in terms of macroscopic empirical parameters that can be measured in the laboratory, that was the first level of understanding in the 19th century. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was provided by the development of statistical thermodynamics.
Statistical thermodynamics, also called statistical mechanics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, supplementing thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions and chemical transport and with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states (especially equilibrium states) and processes of thermodynamical systems, using macroscopic, empirical properties directly measurable in the laboratory. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work, heat, and matter, based on the laws of thermodynamics. The qualifier classical reflects the fact that it represents the descriptive level in terms of macroscopic empirical parameters that can be measured in the laboratory, that was the first level of understanding in the 19th century. A microscopic interpretation of these concepts was provided by the development of statistical thermodynamics.
Statistical thermodynamics, also called statistical mechanics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, supplementing thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states. This field relates the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic, bulk properties of materials that can be observed on the human scale, thereby explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum theory at the microscopic level.
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions and chemical transport and with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics.
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
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Equilibrium thermodynamics studies transformations of matter and energy in systems at or near thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. In thermodynamic equilibrium no macroscopic change is occurring or can be triggered; within the system, every microscopic process is balanced by its opposite; this is called the principle of detailed balance. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial state, subject to specified constraints, to calculate what the equilibrium state of the system will be.
Within a simple isolated thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in the absence of externally imposed force fields, all properties of the material of the system are spatially homogeneous. Much of the basic theory of thermodynamics is concerned with homogeneous systems in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Most systems found in nature or considered in engineering are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, exactly considered. They are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. For example, according to Callen, "in absolute thermodynamic equilibrium all radioactive materials would have decayed completely and nuclear reactions would have transmuted all nuclei to the most stable isotopes. Such processes, which would take cosmic times to complete, generally can be ignored.". Such processes being ignored, many systems in nature are close enough to thermodynamic equilibrium that for many purposes their behaviour can be well approximated by equilibrium calculations.
Quasi-static transfers between simple systems are nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium and are reversible
It very much eases and simplifies theoretical thermodynamical studies to imagine transfers of energy and matter between two simple systems that proceed so slowly that at all times each simple system considered separately is near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. Such processes are sometimes called quasi-static and are near enough to being reversible.
Natural processes are partly described by tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium and are irreversible
Simple isolated thermodynamic systems, as time passes, tend naturally towards thermodynamic equilibrium. In the absence of externally imposed force fields, they become homogeneous in all their local properties. Such homogeneity is an important characteristic of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium in the absence of externally imposed force fields.
Many thermodynamic processes can be modeled by compound or composite systems, consisting of several or many contiguous component simple systems, initially not in thermodynamic equilibrium, but allowed to transfer mass and energy between them. Natural thermodynamic processes are described in terms of a tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium within simple systems and in transfers between contiguous simple systems. Such natural processes are irreversible
Equilibrium thermodynamics studies transformations of matter and energy in systems at or near thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. In thermodynamic equilibrium no macroscopic change is occurring or can be triggered; within the system, every microscopic process is balanced by its opposite; this is called the principle of detailed balance. A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is: given a system in a well-defined initial state, subject to specified constraints, to calculate what the equilibrium state of the system will be.
Within a simple isolated thermodynamic system in thermodynamic equilibrium, in the absence of externally imposed force fields, all properties of the material of the system are spatially homogeneous. Much of the basic theory of thermodynamics is concerned with homogeneous systems in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Most systems found in nature or considered in engineering are not in thermodynamic equilibrium, exactly considered. They are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. For example, according to Callen, "in absolute thermodynamic equilibrium all radioactive materials would have decayed completely and nuclear reactions would have transmuted all nuclei to the most stable isotopes. Such processes, which would take cosmic times to complete, generally can be ignored.". Such processes being ignored, many systems in nature are close enough to thermodynamic equilibrium that for many purposes their behaviour can be well approximated by equilibrium calculations.
Quasi-static transfers between simple systems are nearly in thermodynamic equilibrium and are reversible
It very much eases and simplifies theoretical thermodynamical studies to imagine transfers of energy and matter between two simple systems that proceed so slowly that at all times each simple system considered separately is near enough to thermodynamic equilibrium. Such processes are sometimes called quasi-static and are near enough to being reversible.
Natural processes are partly described by tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium and are irreversible
Simple isolated thermodynamic systems, as time passes, tend naturally towards thermodynamic equilibrium. In the absence of externally imposed force fields, they become homogeneous in all their local properties. Such homogeneity is an important characteristic of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium in the absence of externally imposed force fields.
Many thermodynamic processes can be modeled by compound or composite systems, consisting of several or many contiguous component simple systems, initially not in thermodynamic equilibrium, but allowed to transfer mass and energy between them. Natural thermodynamic processes are described in terms of a tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium within simple systems and in transfers between contiguous simple systems. Such natural processes are irreversible
NON-EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS
_Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium;
it is also called thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is concerned with transport processes and
with the rates of chemical reactions.
Non-equilibrium systems can be in stationary states that are not
homogeneous even when there is no externally imposed field of force; in
this case, the description of the internal state of the system requires a
field theory.
One of the methods of dealing with non-equilibrium systems is to
introduce so-called 'internal variables'. These are quantities that
express the local state of the system, besides the usual local
thermodynamic variables; in a sense such variables might be seen as
expressing the 'memory' of the materials. Hysteresis
may sometimes be described in this way. In contrast to the usual
thermodynamic variables, 'internal variables' cannot be controlled by
external manipulations. This approach is usually unnecessary for gases and liquids, but may be useful for solids. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.